Havsrätt Law of the Sea. Prof Rosemary Rayfuse

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1 Havsrätt Law of the Sea Prof Rosemary Rayfuse

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3 The Oceans Cover 70% of the earth s surface Provide vital ecosystem and life sustaining services Vital avenues of commerce and transport. Major source of food and other living resources, ie fish, seaweed, sea birds, marine mammals Major source of non-living resources, ie, seabed minerals and oil and gas BUT: Depths still not plumbed Little known about marine species particularly deep sea species Major environmental stressors including destructive fishing practices, pollution and climate change Conflicting coastal state vs maritime state interests Conflicting developed vs developing state interests Important vectors for threats to security, ie piracy, people smuggling

4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAW OF THE SEA

5 Grotius and the Mare Liberum Freedom of navigation and commerce in Greek and Roman times The middle ages: piracy and the growth of sea power Portugal, Spain and the Papal Bull of 1492 Expanding Dutch interests The Mare Liberum (1609): the seas as the common property of all, incapable of being subjected to occupation or appropriation; a public thing; the common property of all.

6 Freedom of the Seas 17 th and 18 th century challenges to the freedom: trading monopolies and exclusion of foreign vessels from fishing areas 19 th century rise of British and US sea power: Freedom of the Seas as the clarion call of seafaring nations 20 th century technological, economic, political and ideological developments present fundamental challenges to the freedom of the seas Transformation of the scope and significance of the principle of freedom: Query whether Freedom of the Seas can still be considered a fundamental principle

7 CODIFYING THE LAW OF THE SEA

8 Development of the Law of the Sea The rational for codification: maritime state vs coastal state interests 1873 ILA, IIL 1924 League attempts re territorial waters 1930s Harvard drafts 1945 Truman Proclamations ILC Draft Articles

9 1958 UNCLOS I 86 states adopt 4 Geneva Conventions/Genèvekonventioner Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone (TSCZ) / Territorialhav och den angränsande zonen (GKTH) Continental Shelf (CS) / Kontinentalsockeln (GKKS) High Seas (HS) / Fria havet (GKFH) High Seas Fisheries (HS Fish) / Fiske och bevarande av de levande tillgångarna i det fria havet (ej i gröna häftet) Agreement on rights in Territorial Sea, Contiguous Zone and Continental Shelf but no agreement on their breadth. All into force by 1966 but fishing convention never heavily ratified. Optional protocol on dispute settlement never into force

10 1960 UNCLOS II 6+6 formula for breadth of territorial sea (6 mile territorial sea + 6 mile contiguous zone) fails by one vote

11 UNCLOS III and the 1982 LOSC UNCLOS III negotiations from G77 States play dominant role with new special interest groups: archipelagic and landlocked states United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Law of the Sea Convention or LOSC) / Havsrättskonventionen 1982 (LOSC) adopted 12 December 1982, into force 16 November Currently 168 states parties (USA not a party) Package deal accommodating demands of coastal states (maritime zones), interests of maritime powers (transit passage) and interests of international community (International Seabed Authority and the common heritage of mankind) Framework convention : Constitution for the Oceans

12 Finishing Unfinished Business 1994 Implementing Agreement on Part XI: to get developed states to accept deep seabed mining regime. Adopted by GA Res 48/263, 28/7/1994. Into force 28/7/ States Parties (including USA) 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement: to flesh out Arts re straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. Into force 11/12/ States Parties (including USA). LOSC to be interpreted in light of these Implementing Agreements Possible new Implementing Agreement on Conservation and Management of Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: negotiations may begin 2018

13 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE LAW OF THE SEA

14 Substantive Architecture The LOSC and its Implementing Agreements The 1958 Geneva Conventions to the extent not superseded by the LOSC Customary International Law and General Principles of International Law Other related treaties, ie IMO treaties dealing with pollution, dumping, crewing and safety standards, and ballast water in the shipping context; and FAO treaties re port state measures and flag state responsibilities in the fisheries context UNGA resolutions, ie Res 61/105 (2006) and 64/72 (2009) on destructive fishing practices Res 46/215 (1991) on large scale pelagic driftnet fishing

15 Institutional Architecture Bodies created by LOSC: International Seabed Authority Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Others: UN Bodies: UNGA, UNICPOLOS, BBNJ Working Group International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs)

16 MARITIME ZONES or HAVSTERRITORIUM

17 KS har förpliktelse att offentliggöra sina anspråk samt identifiera områden

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19 Baselines / Baslinjer What are baselines? the line from which the outer limits of maritime zones are measured (LOSC Art 4) Demarcation between internal waters and waters in which other states enjoy some rights Normala baslinjer följer lågvattenlinjen / the NORMAL baseline follows the low water line along the coast Baselines can be measured in different ways to suit different conditions (LOSC Arts 6-14 and 16); normal, straight, bays, river mouths, etc

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22 Straight baselines / Räta baslinjer LOSC Arts 7 and 16 Räta baslinjer när kusten innehåller djupa inskott (deeply indented coast) eller när det förekommer en serie av öar längs med kusten och dessa ligger i kustens omedelbara närhet (fringe of islands) or highly unstable coastline or bay 2 villkor: Den räta baslinjen får inte mer än nämnvärt avvika från kusten Vattnet innanför baslinjen måst ha tillräcklig närhet till land. OBS! I praxis tillämpas bestämmelserna liberalt till KS:s förmån May not cut of territorial sea of another state from high seas or its EEZ

23 Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case

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27 Baselines Bays / Bukta LOSC Art 10 Identification of a bay and methods for drawing base and closing lines the semi-circle test Historic Bays - must demonstrate open effective, long term and continuous exercise of authority consistent with the acquiescence of the other states, ie: Gulf of Fonseca, Hudson Bay, Gulf of Sidra, (but challenged by US)

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29 Gulf of Sidra Historisk bukt?

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31 Inre vatten och territorialhav Inre vatten: floder och sjöar samt vatten innanför baslinjen (LOSC Art 8(1) Ses som en del av KS:s territorium där denna stat har full suveränitet på samma sett som på landområden. Territorialhav: utanför baslinjen upp till 12 M (LOSC Art 3) I dessa områden utövar kuststaten full överhöghet (LOSC Art 2, och kan reglera alla utländska fartyg på inre vatten OBS! Fartyget även underkastad flaggstatens lag. Kan finnas immunitetsregler.

32 Internal Waters / Inre Vatten LOSC Art 8 All waters landward of the baselines Part of the sovereign territory of the coastal state, thus no right of innocent passage except where baseline encloses as internal waters areas that had not previously been internal Access to ports no right of entry except for force majeure Jurisdiction of coastal states = complete. Thus: warships need diplomatic clearance warships retain flag state immunity all ships must comply with coastal state regulations

33 Territorial Sea / Territorialhav All waters 12 nm seaward of baselines Sovereignty over territorial sea (Art 2) subject to: force majeure Sovereign immunity right of innocent passage Ships of all states enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea Meaning of passage : LOSC Art 18 traversing TS without entering IW Proceeding to or from IW passage must be continuous and expeditious Meaning of innocent : LOSC Art 19 passage is innocent so long as the transiting vessel does not prejudice the peace, good order and security of the coastal state and is IAW the LOSC and rules of IL

34 Laws of Coastal State in Relation to Innocent Passage LOSC Art 21: Coastal states may adopt laws in respect of: fiscal, immigration, sanitary and customs safety of navigation and regulation of maritime traffic protection of navigational aids protection of cables and pipelines conservation of the living resources of the sea prevention of infringements of fishers laws preservation of the environment and prevention and control of pollution (not re CDM unless GIARS) (and see also Art 234 re ice-covered areas) marine scientific research and hydrographic surveys Must give due publicity and all foreign ships must comply LOSC Art 22: can designate sea lanes IAW int l and IMO standards

35 Rights and Duties of Coastal States The costal state must: give appropriate publicity to any dangers to navigation and comply with duties re lights, bouys, charts etc The coastal state may: take action to prevent passage that is not innocent close its territorial sea for security reasons as long as the waters are not international require warships to leave territorial sea immediately if they fail to comply with coastal state laws and regulations or a request to do (no req t to give notice of intention to transit but comity suggests it should be sought) The coastal state must not: not hamper or deny the right of innocent passage not discriminate against the vessels or cargo charge for passage

36 Coastal State Jurisdiction Criminal jurisdiction to be exercised over merchant and government ships operated for commercial purposes in transit through territorial sea only where: consequences of the crime extend to the coastal state the crime disturbs the peace of the country or the good order of the territorial sea assistance has been requested by master or diplomatic or consular agent of flag state necessary for suppression of illicit drug trafficking But see exception re pollution offences (Art 218 etc) Full criminal jurisdiction can be applied to vessels transiting TS after leaving IW Warships immune from jurisdiction of coastal state (but must comply with request to leave if violates coastal state laws and regulations)

37 2 undantag för KS att reglera fritt: 1. Rätt till oskadlig genomfart I allt territorialhav (LOSC art. 17) I vissa inre vatten ( LOSC art. 8(2)) Genomfart måste vara Oavbruten och skyndsam Oskadlig. Oskadlig genomfart definieras i LOSC art. 19 Kuststaten är fortfarande relativt fri att: - reglera formerna för genomfarten - att vidta tvångsåtgärder mot fartyg som inte lever upp till villkor för genomfart Möjlighet att tillfälligt suspendera rätten till oskadlig genomfart

38 2. Internationella sund Två alternativ: Rätt till transitpassage (utvidgar rätten för transit, art. 38 UNCLOS) Icke-suspenderbar rätt till oskadlig genomfart gäller i alla sund (art. 45 UNCLOS) Rätt till transitpassage inskränker KS:s möjligheter att: - reglera formerna för genomfarten (art. 42 UNCLOS) - vidta tvångsåtgärder (art. 233 UNCLOS)

39 3 typer av sund där transitpassagereglerna inte tillämpas: 1. Sund där det finns en led genom fritt hav eller EEZ som är lika lämplig ur navigeringssynpunkt (LOSC art. 36). Ex. Kuba och USA 2. Sund mellan ö och fastland där det finns en led lika lämplig ur navigeringssynpunkt genom fria havet /EEZ på öns havssida (LOSC art. 38(1). Exv. Korfukanalen 3. Sund där genomfart regleras helt eller delvis sedan gammalt gällande internationella konventioner (LOSC art. 35(c)). Ex. Öresund I dessa sund tillämpas ickesuspenderbar rätt till oskadlig genomfart.

40 International Straits and the Regime of Transit Passage Transit passage applies to straits which are used for international navigation from one part of the high seas or EEZ to another part of the high seas or EEZ Does not apply to a strait formed by an island of a state bordering the strait and its mainland where a route of similar convenience exists through high seas Transit passage through international straits is available to both ships and aircraft Transit passage is available for continuous and expeditious passage but allows a ship or aircraft to enter, leave or return to a state bordering the aircraft Transit passage does not affect the legal status of the waters Transit passage is non-suspendable

41 Transit Passage: Coastal State Rights and Duties States shall not hamper passage there shall be no suspension of passage State bordering straits may designate sea lanes and traffic separation schemes which comply with GAIRs. Proposals to be submitted to IMO for approval and adoption. Bordering states may adopt non-discriminatory laws/regulations in relation to safety of navigation, fishing, pollution, and FISC. May also seek PSSA designation States should establish navigational and safety aids.

42 Transit Passage Rights and Duties Ships shall: proceed without delay refrain from any use or threat of force refrain from activities not incidental to their normal modes of transit unless rendered necessary by force majeure or distress not carry out research or survey activities without prior consent of states bordering the strait Respect applicable sea lanes and traffic separation schemes Abide by coastal state laws(consider protests by US against Australian compulsory pilotage regime in the Torres Strait) Ships shall abide by generally accepted international regulations relating to: safety of life at sea, collision prevention, pollution prevention, reduction and control

43 International Straits to which Transit Passage Does Not Apply broad straits involving navigation outside any territorial sea = Freedom of navigation Straits formed by an island of a state bordering the strait and its mainland where there exists seaward of the island a route through the high seas or through and exclusive economic zone of similar convenience with respect to navigational or hydrographical characteristics = Non-suspendable innocent passage Straits between a part of the high seas or an exclusive economic zone and the territorial sea of a foreign state = Non-suspendable innocent passage

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45 Internationellt sund?

46 Contiguous Zone / Angränsande Zon Angränsar till territorialhavet, max 24 M från baslinjen (LOSC art. 33) KS har begränsade befogenheter att verkställa tull-, skatte-, hälsooch immigrationslagar (LOSC art. 33(1)). Inte alla KS har inrättat en sådan zon. KS kan inte skapa nya förpliktelser på den angränsande zonen. Up to 24 nm seaward of baselines (Art 33) Coastal state has jurisdiction over fiscal, immigration, customs and sanitation matters Effect of EEZ is the CZ redundant?

47 Exclusive Economic Zone / Exklusiv Ekonomisk Zon (EEZ) Introducerades med LOSC (art. 55). Numera gäller även som sedvanerätt Max 200 M sett från baslinjen (LOSC art. 57). Kuststaten har vissa suveräna rättigheter (LOSC art. 56): Exklusiv rätt till naturtillgångar i havet, på havsbotten, och i bottensedimenten. Även rätt att utvinna naturtillgångar och föra upp de anläggningar som detta kräver KS ta andra staters intressen i beaktning. I övrigt att se som fritt hav

48 Exclusive Economic Zone Sui generis regime introduced by LOSC Art 55 Concept (even if not all rights and duties) considered part of customary international law LOSC Art 57: EEZ from 12nm up to 200 nm seaward of baselines Coastal State has: Sovereign rights over the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of living and non-living natural resources and wrt other activities for the exploration and exploitation of the zone, such as production of energy from wind, water and currents Jurisdiction re: establishment of installations, structures and artificial islands Conduct of marine scientific research (see Part XIII) Protection and preservation of marine environment (See Part XII) Right of hot pursuit Must have DUE REGARD to rights and duties of other states Seabed rights are exercised IAW continental shelf provisions in Part VI

49 Third State Rights in EEZ General high seas freedoms of navigation, overflight and laying submarine cables and pipelines (subject to coastal state s regulations on use of natural resources, establishment of artificial islands, marine research and protection and preservation of the marine environment) Due regard to rights and duties of coastal state Arts re high seas freedoms apply in so far as not incompatible with EEZ rules Foreign shipping subject to coastal state powers of pollution control Military activities allowed (extent is controversial) Unattributed rights: conflicts to be resolved on basis of equity and in light of all relevant circumstances, taking into account respective importance of interests involved to the parties and the international community as a whole (Art 59)

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51 Continental Shelf / Kontinentalsockeln Definieras i LOSC art. 76 Geologisk och juridisk definition sammanfaller inte alltid Den juridiska definitionen ger KS två möjligheter Området ut till kontinentalrandens slut Området ut till 200 M

52 Kuststaten har vissa suveräna rättigheter att (LOSC art. 80): På havsbottnen utvinna och utforska ickelevande naturtillgångar och levande organismer som tillhör bottenlevande arter. Samt uppföra anläggningar som denna utvinning kräver

53 Continental Shelf LOSC Art 76: the continental shelf extends to the edge of the continental margin or to 200nm where the margin does not extend that far Therefore even if no geomorphological shelf you get to 200 nm. If shelf extends beyond 200 nm then can claim Extended Continental Shelf (ECS) out to 350nm or 100nm from 2000m isobath (Art 76(5)) Coastal state has the sovereign rights to explore and exploit natural resources of the shelf including: mineral and other non-living resources of sea-bed and subsoil (oil, gas, etc) sedentary species (immobile or in constant contact with seabed during harvestable stage Art 77(4)) Rights over non-sedentary species are covered under EEZ regime (has implications re ECS) Rights are exclusive: if coastal state does not exploit no one else can (without consent)

54 Limits on Coastal State Continental Shelf Rights Continental shelf rights do not affect the legal status of the waters or airspace above (implications re ECS) The exercise of the coastal state s rights must not infringe on, or unjustifiable interfere with navigation and other freedoms of other states (ie debate re need to remove abandoned installations) But CS can establish safety zones up to 500 meters around installations (ie, Russia, Greenpeace and Arctic Sunrise incident All states can lay submarine cables and pipelines subject to reasonable CS measures re pollution, exploitation and CS consent as to course No rights over non-natural resources, ie ship wrecks, just because they lie on the shelf

55 The Extended Continental Shelf Can be claimed by states where shelf extends beyond 200 nm (as a geomorphological fact) Water column above remains high seas Complex provisions for determining extent: Art 76(4-7) Information on extent of ECS to be submitted to Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf for recommendations on limits to be established Limits established by states on the basis of CLCS recommendations are final and binding (query effect re US as non-party) Australia first state to successfully declare limits of ECS (except re Antarctica) Currently 77 submissions before the CLCS. See,

56 High Seas / Fritt hav Definieras motsatsvis (LOSC art. 86) det som inte tillhör en stats EEZ, territorialhav eller inre vatten. LOSC Art. 87 föreskriver att fria havet är öppet för alla stater Exklusiv flaggstatsjurisdiktion (LOSC art. 92) Principen om havets frihet gäller. Innefattar sex friheter: 1. Fri navigering (fri sjöfart), 2. Fri överflygning 3. Rätt till fiske 4. Lägga ut kablar och pipelines 5. Uppföra konstgjorda öar och andra anläggningar 6. Vetenskaplig forskning OBS! Ej uttömmande lista

57 High Seas Art 86: waters beyond national jurisdiction. Also includes superadjacent airspace Art. 87: open to all states - coastal or landlocked Art. 88 : reserved for peaceful purposes Art 89: res communis cannot be appropriated no state can prevent the ships of another state from using the HS for any purpose on the high seas ships are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag state (absent treaty provisions) (Flag State Jurisdiction)

58 High Seas Art. 87 and the regime of freedom Freedom of navigation Freedom of overflight Freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines, subject to Part VI Freedom to construct artificial islands and other installations permitted under international awl, subject to Part VI Freedom of fishing, subject to the conditions laid down in Arts Freedom of scientific research, subject to Parts VI and XIII Freedoms to be exercised with due regard for the interests of other states in the exercise of their high seas freedoms and with due regards for the rights under the LOSC with respect to activities in the Area Query whether the list is exhaustive/non-exhaustive? Freedom s down side: the tragedy of the commons

59 International Sea Bed The Area = the deep seabed beyond areas under the national jurisdiction of states Extent of the Area still to be determined pending establishment of all ECS limits Exploration and exploitation of resources of the Area subject to the regime established by LOSC Part XI and the 1994 IA and the jurisdiction of the International Seabed Authority Resources defined as all solid, liquid or gaseous resources in situ in the Area at or beneath the seabed and when recovered called minerals (Art 133) Ongoing debate as to whether ISA has jurisdiction over living sedentary species on seabed

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61 MV Arctic Sunrise Greenpeace-aktivister tar sig upp på en oljeplattform belägen inom Rysslands EEZ. Russia had declared a 3 nm safety zone around the platform. Greenpeace-aktivisterna kom med en gummibåt ifrån det större fartyget Arctic Sunrise som för nederländsk flagg. Arctic Sunrise befann sig inom den ryska EEZ. Dagen efter att aktivisterna bordat plattformen tog sig en rysk beväpnad styrka ombord på Arctic Sunrise med hjälp av en helikopter. Den ryska styrkan grep hela besättningen bestående av c:a 30 Greenpeace-aktivister från hela världen. Bordningen och gripande skedde på det fria havet.

62 Issues Was Russia entitled to declare a 3 nm safety zone around the platform? Kan Ryssland borda fartyget och gripa besättningen med hänvisning till att... aktivisterna är att anse som sjörövare enligt LOSC art. 101? Ryssland har rätt till hot pursuit enligt LOSC art. 111 eftersom aktivisterna brutit mot ryska föreskrifter avseende bordning av oljeplattformar?

63 Definitionen av sjöröveri / Piracy LOSC Article 101 Piracy consists of any of the following acts: (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: (i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b).

64 Enforcement action against pirates LOSC Article 105 Seizure of a pirate ship or aircraft: On the high seas, or in any other place outside the jurisdiction of any State, every State may seize a pirate ship or aircraft, or a ship or aircraft taken by piracy and under the control of pirates, and arrest the persons and seize the property on board. The courts of the State which carried out the seizure may decide upon the penalties to be imposed, and may also determine the action to be taken with regard to the ships, aircraft or property, subject to the rights of third parties acting in good faith. NB: Many states make piracy within their waters a crime under domestic law

65 Hot pursuit Rätt att förfölja fartyg som man misstänker har brutit mot nationell lag om man påbörjar förföljelsen på inre vatten eller territorialhav, men inte kan fullbordas innan fartyget når det fria havet eller annan stats territorialhav (LOSC Art. 111) Om brutit mot föreskrifter som gäller på EEZ? or to the Safety Zone? Arctic Sunrise befann sig på Rysslands EEZ. Kan Ryssland borda? Were the activists pirates? Constructive presence mother ship deemed present by virtue of smaller boats working with it within the relevant zone and can also be pursued gummibåten som befann sig i Safety Zone anses tillhöra moderskeppet Arctic Sunrise Can Russia board if the pursuit was not hot (ie it was interrupted?)